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Forced marriage is a marriage in which one or more of the parties is married without their consent or against their will. A marriage can also become a forced marriage even if both parties enter with full consent if one or both are later forced to stay in the marriage against their will.
A forced marriage differs from an arranged marriage, in which both parties presumably consent to the assistance of their parents or a third party such as a matchmaking in finding and choosing a spouse. There is often a continuum of coercion used to compel a marriage, ranging from outright physical violence to subtle psychological pressure.
Though now widely condemned by international opinion, forced marriages still take place in various cultures across the world, particularly in parts of South Asia and Africa. Some scholars object to use of the term "forced marriage" because it invokes the consensual legitimating language of marriage (such as husband/wife) for an experience that is precisely the opposite. A variety of alternative terms have been proposed, including Forced conjugal association and Conjugal slavery.
The United Nations views forced marriage as a form of human rights abuse, since it violates the principle of the free will and autonomy of individuals. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that a person's right to choose a spouse and enter freely into marriage is central to their life and dignity, and their equality as a human being. The Roman Catholic Church deems forced marriage grounds for granting an annulment—for a marriage to be valid both parties must give their consent freely. The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery also prohibits marriage without right to refusal by both parties Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, Article 1, (c) and requires a marriageable age to prevent this. Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, Article 2 Similarly, the International Labour Organization recognizes forced marriage as a form of modern slavery.
In 2009, the Special Court for Sierra Leone's (SCSL) Appeals Chamber found the abduction and confinement of women for "forced marriage" in war to be a new crime against humanity (AFRC decision).
In 2013, the first United Nations Human Rights Council resolution against child marriage, early, and forced marriages was adopted; the resolution recognizes child, early, and forced marriage as involving violations of human rights which "prevents individuals from living their lives free from all forms of violence and that has adverse consequences on the enjoyment of human rights, such as the right to education, and the right to the highest attainable standard of health including sexual and reproductive health", and also states that "the elimination of child, early and forced marriage should be considered in the discussion of the post-2015 development agenda." The elimination of this harmful practice is one of the targets of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5.
Among the last European countries to establish full gender equality in marriage were Switzerland,In 1985, a referendum guaranteed women legal equality with men within marriage.[2] [3] The new reforms came into force in January 1988. Women's movements of the world: an international directory and reference guide, edited by Sally Shreir, p. 254see also Greece, In 1983, legislation was passed guaranteeing equality between spouses, abolishing dowry, and ending legal discrimination against illegitimate children [4] Demos, Vasilikie. (2007) "The Intersection of Gender, Class and Nationality and the Agency of Kytherian Greek Women." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association. 11 August. Spain,In 1981, Spain abolished the requirement that married women must have their husbands' permission to initiate judicial proceedings the Netherlands, The Economics of Imperfect Labor Markets: Second Edition, by Tito Boeri, Jan van Ours, pp. 105, [5] [6] and France Although married women in France obtained the right to work without their husbands' permission in 1965,see also Loi du 13 juillet 1965 portant réforme des régimes matrimoniaux and the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970,(before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children) it was only in 1985 that a legal reform abolished the stipulation that the husband had the sole power to administer the children's property.[7]
Certain family members had different forms of forced marriages in the early 1800s and in countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, and even West Germany (albeit not all of Germany). Marriage to a woman without the father's consent was still uneasy at the time. In 1953, the forced marriage specialist John Lester Senior, who was working at his home in Los Angeles California at the time, arranged the meaning of forced marriage during the 1953 Forced Marriage Reunion in Western Los Angeles, which lasted from 1953 to 1955.
An arranged marriage is not the same as a forced marriage: in the former, the spouse can reject the offer; in the latter, they do not. The line between arranged and forced marriage is however often difficult to draw, due to the implied familial and social pressure to accept the marriage and obey one's parents in all respects.
In Europe, during the late 18th century and early 19th century, the literary and intellectual movement of romanticism presented new and progressive ideas about love marriage, which started to gain acceptance in society. In the 19th century, marriage practices varied across Europe, but in general, arranged marriages were more common among the upper class. Arranged marriages were the norm in Russia before early 20th century, most of which were endogamous.; see Chapter 1 were common historically, but began to be questioned in the 19th and 20th centuries. In the U.S.A., child marriages are often considered to be forced marriages, because children (especially young ones) are not able to make a informed consent whether or not to marry, and are often influenced by their families.
In Western countries, during the past decades, the nature of marriage—especially with regard to the importance of marital procreation and the ease of divorce—has changed dramatically, which has led to less social and familial pressure to get married, providing more freedom of choice concerning choosing a spouse.
Historically, forced marriage was also used to require a captive (slave or prisoner of war) to integrate with the host community, and accept his or her fate. One example is the English blacksmith John R. Jewitt, who spent three years as a captive of the Nootka people on the Pacific Northwest Coast in 1802–1805. He was ordered to marry, because the council of chiefs thought that a wife and family would reconcile him to staying with his captors for life. Jewitt was given a choice between forced marriage for himself and capital punishment for both him and his "father" (a fellow captive). "Reduced to this sad extremity, with death on the one side, and matrimony on the other, I thought proper to choose what appeared to me the least of the two evils" (p154). A Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt, only survivor of the crew of the ship Boston, during a captivity of nearly three years among the savages of Nootka Sound: with an account of the manners, mode of living, and religious opinions of the natives. digital full text here
Forced marriage was also practiced by authoritarian governments as a way to meet population targets. The Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia systematically forced people into marriages, to increase the population and continue the revolution.
These marriage ceremonies consisted of no fewer than three couples and could be as large as 160 couples. Generally, the village chief or a senior leader of the community would approach both parties and inform them that they were to be married and the time and place the marriage would occur. Often, the marriage ceremony would be the first time the future spouses would meet. Parents and other family members were not allowed to participate in selecting the spouse or to attend the marriage ceremony. The Khmer Rouge maintained that parental authority was unnecessary because it "was to be everyone's 'mother and father.'"
Raptio is a Latin term referring to the large scale abduction of women, (kidnapping) either for marriage or enslavement (particularly sexual slavery). The practice is surmised to have been common since anthropological antiquity.Eisenhauer, U., Kulturwandel und Innovationsprozess: Die fünf grossen 'W' und die Verbreitung des Mittelneolithikums in Südwestdeutschland. Archäologische Informationen 22, 1999, 215–239; an alternative interpretation is the focus of abduction of children rather than women, a suggestion also made for the mass grave excavated at Thalheim. See E Biermann, Überlegungen zur Bevölkerungsgrösse in Siedlungen der Bandkeramik (2001)
In the 21st century, forced marriages have come to attention in European countries, within the context of immigration from cultures in which they are common. The Istanbul Convention prohibits forced marriages (see Article 37).
target="_blank" rel="nofollow"> Kenya: Update to KEN23118.E of 21 February 1996 on incidence of forced marriage among Muslims and availability of state protection
c) Any institution or practice whereby:
Article 32 – Civil consequences of forced marriages
Parties shall take the necessary legislative or other measures to ensure that marriages concluded under force may be voidable, annulled or dissolved without undue financial or administrative burden placed on the victim.
Article 37 – Forced marriage
- French version
A dowry is the property or money that a wife (or wife's family) brings to her husband upon marriage.
A bride price is an amount of money or property or wealth paid by the groom (or his family) to the parents of the bride upon marriage.
The future bride then has no choice in most circumstances, but to accept: if the bride goes back to her family, she (and her family) will often be ostracized by the community because the community thinks she has lost her virginity, and she is now 'impure'.
A different form of marital kidnapping, groom kidnapping, occurs in some areas where payment of a dowry is generally expected.
Giving birth outside marriage can, in some cultures, trigger extreme reactions from the family or community, including .
The term "shotgun wedding" is an American colloquialism, though it is also used in other parts of the world. It is based on a hyperbole scenario in which the pregnant (or sometimes only "deflowered") woman's father resorts to coercion (such as threatening with a shotgun) to ensure that the male partner who caused the pregnancy goes through with it, sometimes even following the man to the altar to prevent his escape. The use of violent coercion to marry was never legal in the United States, although many anecdotal stories and folk songs record instances of such intimidation in the 18th and 19th centuries. Purposes of the wedding include recourse from the man for the act of impregnation and to ensure that the child is raised by both parents as well as to ensure that the woman has material means of support. In some cases, a major objective was the restoring of social honour to the mother.
Shotgun weddings have become less common as the stigma associated with out-of-wedlock births has gradually faded and the number of such births has increased; the increasing availability of birth control, sex education, and abortion, as well as material support to unwed mothers, such as Elterngeld, , parental leave, and free , have reduced the perceived need for such measures.
Forced marriage often means a lifetime of rape, abuse and domestic servitude, and the loss of reproductive rights, financial rights and basic human rights. For women and girls, forced marriage often means forced motherhood.
British citizens escaping forced marriage abroad are forced to pay their repatriation costs or get into debt. This makes escaping a forced marriage harder. Forced marriage victims are made to pay to go home to UK The Guardian
In the United States, Unchained At Last is the only nonprofit organization operating to help people in the U.S. escape forced or arranged marriages by providing free legal and social services.
In some jurisdictions, people who had coerced the victim into marriage may face criminal charges.
However, in the Hanafi school of jurisprudence, a guardian is not needed to make the marriage valid.
In some cases, the husband is much older than his bride, and when she becomes a widow, she is discriminated and excluded by society.
The practice of bride price, known also as lobolo, is common in Malawi, and plays a major role in forced marriage. Wife inheritance is also practiced in Malawi. After marriage, wives have very limited rights and freedoms; and general preparation of young girls for marriage consists in describing their role as that of being subordinated to the husband.
and also the highest total fertility rate.
Girls who attempt to leave forced marriages are most often rejected by their families and are often forced to enter prostitution in order to survive.
Due to the food crisis, girls are being sold into marriage.
is known as one of the most famous activists against forced marriage in Niger. Chaibou was 12 when she was informed by her own mother that she was to be married to her cousin, and when she was 16, she took to the courts. With little success, Chaibou was forced to a women's shelter before she was finally able to go home where she learned of her parents changed views on forced marriage, that they were now against it.
The practice occurs mainly in rural parts of South Africa, in particular the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. The girls who are involved in this practice are frequently under-aged, including some as young as eight.
The practice received negative publicity, with media reporting in 2009 that more than 20 Eastern Cape girls are forced to drop out of school every month because of ukuthwala.
Families sell their girls to older men for financial benefits, causing pain among young girls. Oftentimes, girls are married off as soon as they hit puberty, which can be as young as seven years old. To the older men, these young brides act as symbols of masculinity and accomplishment. Child brides endure rape, causing health risks and growth impediments.
Primary education is usually not completed for young girls in forced marriages. Married and pregnant students are often discriminated against, and expelled and excluded from school. The Law of Marriage Act currently does not address issues with guardianship and child marriage. The issue of child marriage establishes a minimum age of 18 for the boys of Tanzania, but no such minimum age is established for girls.
A report by Human Rights Watch found that about 95% of girls and 50% of adult women imprisoned in Afghanistan were in jail on charges of the "moral crimes" of "running away" from home or zina. Obtaining a divorce without the consent of the husband is nearly impossible in Afghanistan, and women attempting a de facto separation risk being imprisoned for "running away". While it is not socially acceptable for women and girls to leave home without permission, "running away" is not defined as a criminal offense in the Afghan Penal Code. However, in 2010 and 2011, the Afghan Supreme Court issued instructions to courts to charge women with "running away" as a crime. This makes it nearly impossible for women to escape forced marriages. The Human Rights Watch report stated that:
However, Federal Shariat court had taken strict actions against forced marriages and pressurized provincial governments, after which Balochistan government drafted a bill "The Balochistan Child Marriages Prohibition Act, 2021".
However, in April 2022, Indonesian legislature passed Law No. 12 of 2022 on Sexual Violence Crimes. The law considers forced marriage a form of sexual violence and outlaw it, with offenders can be sentenced to a maximum imprisonment of 9 years and/or face a maximum fine of Rp200 million. Included as forms of forced marriage are child marriage, forcing rape victims to marry the rapists, and forcing people to marry in the name of local customs.
These figures exceeded the estimates of help organisation Terre des Femmes, which up until then had estimated that about 1,000 migrant women sought help annually. More than half of the women had experienced physical abuse, and 27% were threatened with weapons or received death threats. Of the victims, 30% were 17 years old or younger. 31.8% were from Germany, 26.4% from Asia, 22.2% from Turkey, and 5.6% from Africa.
In 2016, the German ministry of the interior found that 1,475 children were in forced marriages including more than 1,110 girls. Of those particularly affected 664 were Syrians, 157 were Afghans, and 100 were Iraqis.
In 2008, it was estimated that about 3,000 forced marriages took place each year.
In June 2012, the British Government, under Prime Minister David Cameron, declared that forced marriage would become a criminal offence in the United Kingdom.
The Anti-Social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 makes forcing someone to marry (including abroad) a criminal offence.
In July 2014, the United Kingdom hosted its first global Girl Summit; the goal of the Summit was to increase efforts to end child, early, and forced marriage, and female genital mutilation within a generation.
The first conviction for forced marriage in the United Kingdom occurred in June 2015, with the convicted being a man from Cardiff, who was subsequently sentenced to 16 years in prison.
Of the cases recorded by the government's Force Marriage Unit, run jointly between the Foreign and Commonwealth Office and the Home Office,
Schools in Skåne in the southern part of Sweden report that they discover that about 25 youth are forced to marry annually due to them being part of a shame society. An investigation by government organisation Ungdomsstyrelsen reported that 70,000 youth perceived they were unfree in their choice of spouse.
In July 2016, an Afghans man in Sweden was sentenced to 4 years in prison for forcing his daughter to marry someone in Afghanistan in the first Swedish conviction. He was also convicted for assault, threats, robbery, blackmailing, false imprisonment, and sexually molesting his daughter's Swedish boyfriend.
In January 2019, the maternal uncle and aunt of a 16-year-old girl of an Iraqi family were sentenced to 21 months in jail and had to pay €12500 in damages for forced marriage. In December 2016, her family discovered that the girl was dating a boy, and the family decided to marry her off to a cousin without her knowledge. Under the false pretense that her grandmother was mortally ill, the girl, her mother, aunt, and uncle travelled to Iraq where all but the girl had return tickets. In Iraq, the grandmother proved to be in good health, and the girl was to marry her cousin. Despite having no contacts in Iraq, and having her mobile phone taken from her, she managed to return to Sweden eight months later.
The British Forced marriage consultation, published in 2011, found forcing someone to marry to be a distinct criminal offence in Austria, Belgium, Turkey, Denmark, Norway, and Germany.
The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence defines and criminalizes forced marriage, as well as other forms of violence against women. The Convention came into force on 1 August 2014.
In November 2014, UCL held an event, Forced Marriage: The Real Disgrace, where the award-winning documentary Honor Diaries was shown, and a panel, including Jasvinder Sanghera CBE (Founder of Karma Nirvana), Seema Malhotra MP (Labour Shadow Minister for Women), and Dr Reefat Drabu (former Assistant General Secretary of the Muslim Council of Britain), discussed the concept of (honour), recent changes in British law, barriers to tackling forced marriage, and reasons to be hopeful of positive change.
In addition to these criminal offences, the Civil Marriage Act stipulates: "Marriage requires the free and enlightened consent of two persons to be the spouse of each other", as well as setting 16 as the minimum age for marriage.
However, AHA Foundation for the past 11 years has operated a helpline that successfully referred numerous individuals seeking help in fleeing or avoiding a forced marriage to qualified service providers and law enforcement. [31] The AHA Foundation, accessed 22 March 2013 According to the National Center for Victims of Crime Conference, there are "limited laws/policies directly addressing forced marriage", although more general non-specific laws may be used. AHA Foundation was founded by Ayaan Hirsi Ali, survivor of female genital mutilation, and an attempted forced marriage. The organization Unchained at Last, an organization in the United States, assists women escaping forced or arranged marriages with free legal services and other resources.
It was founded by Fraidy Reiss.
The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS) has been suspected of trafficking underage girls across state lines, as well as across the US–Canada and US–Mexico borders,
Moore-Emmett, Andrea (27 July 2010). "Polygamist Warren Jeffs Can Now Marry Off Underaged Girls With Impunity" . Ms. blog. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
for the purpose of sometimes involuntary plural marriage and sexual abuse. The FLDS is suspected by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police of having trafficked more than 30 under-age girls from Canada to the United States between the late 1990s and 2006 to be entered into polygamous marriages. RCMP spokesman Dan Moskaluk said of the FLDS's activities: "In essence, it's human trafficking in connection with illicit sexual activity." According to the Vancouver Sun, it is unclear whether or not Canada's anti-human trafficking statute can be effectively applied against the FLDS's pre-2005 activities, because the statute may not be able to be applied retroactively. An earlier three-year-long investigation by local authorities in British Columbia into allegations of sexual abuse, human trafficking, and forced marriages by the FLDS resulted in no charges, but did result in legislative change.
In 2024, Sakina Muhammad Jan, a Hazara woman from Shepparton, became the first person to be jailed under Australia's forced marriage laws after ordering her 21-year-old daughter Ruqia Hadari to marry a man who later murdered her.
`Azzaz gave birth to their son in detention during the couple's forced separation. `Azzaz spent three months living with her mother and the couple's two children before sneaking off to Jeddah with Al-Timani, where they were arrested for living together as an unmarried couple. `Azzaz was detained in Dammam Public Prison with both their children and then another Dammam facility described as an orphanage with her son because she refused to return to her mother's family under her half-brothers' guardianship. She feared being married off to a "more suitable" man, As he was afraid they would be mistreated if sent to live with the brothers' family, Al-Timani later gained custody of their daughter, but was repeatedly detained and warned not to talk to the media. He said the first instance court had not asked the couple for its side of the story, that sharia law did not use tribal affiliation as a requirement for marriage, and that the brothers brought the case as part of an inheritance dispute. The Riyadh Court of Appeals (known as a Court of Cassation) upheld the annulment in January, 2007. Authorities stopped letting the couple see each other after she gave an interview to Arab News in November, 2006.
After King Salman asked the Supreme Court of Saudi Arabia, which did not exist at the time of the initial decision, to review the case, lawyers submitted arguments about al-Timani's tribal background. The Supreme Court ruled in January 2010 against the annulment, allowing the couple to reunite.
Activists and women famous for refusing forced marriage
Oceania
Australia
In 2013, forced marriage laws were established in Australia; they have a maximum penalty of imprisonment for seven years.
New Zealand
Forced divorce
One internationally publicized and criticized instance of forced divorce occurred in Saudi Arabia in July 2005. Justice Ibrahim Al-Farraj of the first-instance court in Al-Jouf Province annulled in absentia the nearly three-year-old marriage of Mansour al-Timani and Fatima `Azzaz in response to a complaint from `Azzaz's half-brothers that her husband's tribe had insufficient social status compared to hers; the brothers also said that al-Timani had misrepresented his background. Her half-brothers filed the lawsuit with power of attorney obtained from Fatima's father, who was her male legal guardian while she was unmarried (and who later died). Al-Timani was not served the divorce papers until nine months later, in February, 2006.
Statistics
Child marriage (2008–2014):
Summary:
Afghanistan – 33% Living Conditions Survey 2013-2013 Albania 0% 10% DHS 2008–2009 Algeria 0% 3% MICS 2012–2013 Armenia 0% 7% DHS 2010 Azerbaijan 2% 11% DHS 2011 Bangladesh 18% 52% MICS 2012–2013 Barbados 1% 11% MICS 2012 Belarus 0% 3% MICS 2012 Belize 3% 26% MICS 2011 Benin 11% 32% DHS 2011–2012 Bhutan 6% 26% MICS 2010 Bolivia 3% 22% DHS 2008 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0% 4% MICS 2011–2012 Brazil 11% 36% PNDS 2006 Burkina Faso 10% 52% DHS 2010 Burundi 3% 20% DHS 2010 Cabo Verde 3% 18% DHS 2005 Cambodia 2% 19% DHS 2014 Cameroon 13% 38% DHS 2011 Central African Republic 29% 68% MICS 2010 Chad 29% 68% MICS 2010 Colombia 6% 23% DHS 2010 Comoros 10% 32% DHS 2012 Congo 6% 33% DHS 2011–2012 Costa Rica 7% 21% MICS 2011 Côte d'Ivoire 10% 33% DHS 2011–2012 Cuba 5% 26% MICS 2014 Democratic Republic of the Congo 10% 37% DHS 2013–2014 Djibouti 2% 5% MICS 2006 Dominican Republic 10% 37% DHS 2013 Ecuador 4% 22% ENDEMAIN 2004 Egypt 2% 17% DHS 2014 El Salvador 5% 25% FESAL 2008 Equatorial Guinea 9% 30% DHS 2011 Eritrea 13% 41% Population and Health Survey 2010 Ethiopia 16% 41% DHS 2011 Gabon 6% 22% DHS 2012 Gambia 9% 30% DHS 2013 Georgia 1% 14% RHS 2010 Ghana 5% 21% DHS 2014 Guatemala 7% 30% ENSMI 2008/2009 Guinea 21% 52% DHS 2012 Guinea-Bissau 7% 22% MICS 2010 Guyana 6% 23% DHS 2009 Haiti 3% 18% DHS 2012 Honduras 8% 34% DHS 2011–2012 India 18% 47% NFHS 2005–2006 Indonesia – 14% National Socio-Economic Survey (SUSENAS) 2013 Iran 3% 17% MIDHS 2010 Iraq 5% 24% MICS 2011 Jamaica 1% 8% MICS 2011 Jordan 0% 8% DHS 2012 Kazakhstan 0% 6% MICS 2010–2011 Kenya 4% 23% DHS 2014 Kiribati 3% 20% DHS 2009 Kyrgyzstan 1% 12% MICS 2014 Lao People's Democratic Republic 9% 35% MICS 2011–2012 Lebanon 1% 6% MICS 2009 Lesotho 2% 19% DHS 2009 Liberia 9% 36% DHS 2013 Macedonia 1% 7% MICS 2011 Madagascar 12% 41% ENSOMD 2012–2013 Malawi 9% 46% MICS 2013–2014 Maldives 0% 4% DHS 2009 Mali 15% 55% MICS 2010 Marshall Islands 6% 26% DHS 2007 Mauritania 14% 34% MICS 2011 Mexico 5% 23% ENADID 2009 Mongolia 0% 5% MICS 2010 Montenegro 1% 5% MICS 2013 Morocco 3% 16% DHS 2003–2004 Mozambique 14% 48% DHS 2011 Namibia 2% 7% DHS 2013 Nauru 2% 27% DHS 2007 Nepal 10% 37% MICS 2014 Nicaragua 10% 41% ENDESA 2006 Niger 28% 76% DHS 2012 Nigeria 17% 43% DHS 2013 Pakistan 3% 21% DHS 2012–2013 Panama 7% 26% MICS 2013 KFR Papua New Guinea 2% 21% DHS 2006 Paraguay – 18% RHS 2004 Peru 3% 19% Continuous DHS 2014 Philippines 2% 15% DHS 2013 Qatar 0% 4% MICS 2012 Republic of Moldova 0% 12% MICS 2012 Rwanda 1% 8% DHS 2010 Saint Lucia 1% 8% MICS 2012 Samoa 1% 11% DHS 2014 São Tomé and Príncipe 5% 34% DHS 2008–2009 Senegal 9% 32% Continuous DHS 2014 Serbia 0% 3% MICS 2014 Sierra Leone 13% 39% DHS 2013 Solomon Islands 3% 22% DHS 2007 Somalia 8% 45% MICS 2006 South Africa 1% 6% DHS 2003 South Sudan 9% 52% SHHS 2010 Sri Lanka 2% 12% DHS 2006–2007 State of Palestine 1% 15% MICS 2014 Sudan 7% 33% SHHS 2010 Suriname 5% 19% MICS 2010 Swaziland 1% 7% MICS 2010 Syrian Arab Republic 3% 13% MICS 2006 Tajikistan 0% 12% DHS 2012 Thailand 4% 22% MICS 2012 Timor-Leste 3% 19% DHS 2009 Togo 6% 22% DHS 2013–2014 Tonga 0% 6% DHS 2012 Trinidad and Tobago 2% 8% MICS 2006 Tunisia 0% 2% MICS 2011–2012 Turkmenistan 1% 7% MICS 2006 Tuvalu 0% 10% DHS 2007 Uganda 10% 40% DHS 2011 Ukraine 0% 9% MICS 2012 United Republic of Tanzania 7% 37% DHS 2010 Uruguay 1% 25% MICS 2013 Uzbekistan 0% 7% MICS 2006 Vanuatu 3% 21% DHS 2013 Viet Nam 1% 11% MICS 2014 Yemen 9% 32% DHS 2013 Zambia 6% 31% DHS 2013–2014 Zimbabwe 4% 34% MICS 2014 Sub-Saharan Africa 12% 39% Eastern and Southern Africa 10% 36% West and Central Africa 14% 42% Middle East and North Africa 3% 18% East Asia and Pacific – 15% Excluding China Latin America and Caribbean 5% 23% CEE/CIS 1% 11% Least developed countries 13% 41%
See also
Further reading
(2025). 9781848134645, Zed Books. ISBN 9781848134645
External links
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